Working in Industrial
The period from 1894 to 1915
was a period of change, unrest, and economic uncertainty for the workers of the
In the 1890s, cities grew as
more Americans took urban industrial work. As one of the leading industrial
powers of the period, the
The working conditions in factories were
often harsh. Hours were long, typically ten to twelve hours a day. Working
conditions were frequently unsafe and led to deadly accidents. Tasks tended to
be divided for efficiency's sake which led to repetitive and monotonous work
for employees.
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Driving Cattle to Pasture |
Workers fought their often demeaning work
conditions by uniting together into collective groups and unions. The American
Federation of Labor (AFL), for example, was created in 1886 for skilled craftsmen
under the leadership of Samuel Gompers. The Industrial Workers of the World
(IWW), formed in 1905, also included unskilled workers in its ranks. In this
period of labor unrest, many members in these groups were politically radical,
supporting anarchism, communism, and socialism as tools of change. Groups such
as these would organize strikes and boycotts in order to get management to
acquiesce to their demands. In their early years, however, these labor groups
were rarely successful, as the capitalists often resorted to government support
to enforce their policies on laborers. The Pullman Strike was one such instance
where the government squelched a railway workers' strike by attaching mail cars
to all the trains and then invoking the law that made it illegal to impede the
movement of mail.
Instances such as this caused many to see the
excesses of American business and the need for reform. In what was known as the
Progressive Era, roughly from 1900 to World War I, reformers sought to improve
the lot of the underprivileged of
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In response to criticisms aimed at industry,
some companies instituted "welfare capitalism," giving employees
special benefits to secure loyalty and to prevent the creation of unions. Some
of the benefits included subsidized housing, libraries, and employee social
clubs. The Westinghouse Works used such initiatives, which ultimately failed as
a whole when unionism became more powerful in the
This period also saw the rapid growth of
white-collar jobs as industrial capitalism led to the need for more administrative
and clerical workers. Such workers began to be classified with managers in the
census as opposed to being classified with skilled craftsmen and unskilled
labor. The white-collar workers were further distinguished by earning salaries
instead of wages by the hour or piece of work. White-collar jobs required at
least a high-school education and certain conventions of deportment and dress
that the blue-collar jobs did not. A social stratification began to emerge that
made white-collar jobs seem more prestigious to many than blue-collar ones.
Children of immigrants would aspire to such jobs to increase their social
standing in a society that was often prejudiced against newcomers.
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Although industry was the primary force of
this period, many people still maintained farms across the country. Farming was
likely to be subject to periods of financial instability since profits relied
on the unpredictability of crops and the marketplace. Still, the number of
farms increased in the West, especially in the
In the West, cities sprang up around the
massive cattle trade. The economy there was largely focused on grain farming,
cattle ranching, lumber, and the mining of metal and coal.
This era also saw the development of
department stores and retail jobs in urban areas. Industrial capitalism had
succeeded in producing more goods for the consumer to buy, which led to the
increased need for sales people. Retail jobs were seen by many as more
respectable than factory work, especially for women, who were finding
increasing opportunities in this venue.
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One development of this period was the
increase of women working outside their homes. Still, society dictated limited choices
for them. The most frequent occupations that were considered respectable for
women at the time included factory work, frequently in the garment or textile
industries, teaching, nursing, domestic service, work in department stores, or
clerical work in offices. Women were paid less than men, even for doing the
same jobs, because men were perceived as the family breadwinners and women were
thought to be better suited to domesticity (even though many women worked
outside the home throughout their lives). There was a perceived hierarchy to
jobs that women could obtain which mirrored the stratification occurring with
men's jobs. Factory jobs were considered superior to domestic service since a
woman had more control over her free time in such jobs than as a live-in
servant. Jobs in department stores were thought to be a cut above factory jobs
and occasionally offered women management or buying opportunities. Clerical
work was a field readily open to women, and more prestigious than some jobs
because of the education and deportment associated with it.
African Americans were also generally limited
in their work opportunities. In the South, most were sharecroppers,
agricultural wage laborers, or small landowners Others
worked in industrial jobs, mining, and forestry. In cities, many performed
unskilled labor tasks such as loading freight. African-American women
frequently worked as domestic servants and laundresses. Additionally there were
skilled African Americans who worked as blacksmiths and carpenters or railway
workers. In Northern cities, African Americans generally held a better economic
position than did their Southern peers. Still, their options were limited,
also, as the majority performed labor or service work. Common occupations for
men were janitors, servants, and waiters. Women were housekeepers, servants,
laundresses, and waitresses.